The Oldest Bond

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Motherhood is not a human invention.

On Mother's Day, Animal in the Machine looks at the bonds we celebrate today — and the ones we systematically sever.

From a dairy barn to the Pacific Northwest, from the African savanna to a forest in bear country, this episode asks a simple question: who do we decide to grieve for?

References & further reading

Maternal bonds & animal behavior

• Broad, K.D., Curley, J.P. & Keverne, E.B. (2006) — Mother-infant bonding and the evolution of mammalian social relationships. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 361.
• Numan, Michael (2020) — Neuroscience of Parental Behavior. Springer. Comprehensive overview of the neural and hormonal basis of maternal care across species.
• de Waal, Frans (2019) — Mama's Last Hug: Animal Emotions and What They Tell Us About Ourselves. W. W. Norton. Essential reading on emotional continuity between human and non-human animals.

Dairy cows & calf separation

• Weary, D.M. & Chua, B. (2000) — Effects of early separation on the dairy cow and calf. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 70(4).
• Flower, F.C. & Weary, D.M. (2003) — The effects of early separation on the dairy cow and calf. Animal Welfare 12(3).
• Rushen, J., Boissy, A., Terlouw, E.M.C. & de Passillé, A.M.B. (1999) — Opioid regulation of the social and nonsocial motivation of dairy cows. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 65(1).
• ASPCA — Farm Animal Welfare: Dairy Cows. Accessible overview of standard dairy industry practices and their welfare implications.
• PETA — The Dairy Industry. Overview of calf separation and its documented effects.

Elephants & matriarchal bonds

• Moss, Cynthia (2000) — Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant Family. University of Chicago Press. Landmark long-term study of elephant family structure and maternal bonds.
• McComb, K. et al. (2001) — Matriarchs as repositories of social knowledge in African elephants. Science 292(5516).
• Poole, J.H. (1996) — Coming of Age with Elephants. Hyperion. First-hand account of elephant social behavior and grief responses.
• Bradshaw, G.A. et al. (2005) — Elephant breakdown: Social trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder in elephant populations. Nature 433.
• ElephantVoices — Joyce Poole's research archive on elephant communication and behavior.

Orcas & Tahlequah

• Center for Whale Research — J35 Tahlequah profile and documentation of the 2018 calf carrying event.
• Ford, J.K.B., Ellis, G.M. & Balcomb, K.C. (2000) — Killer Whales: The Natural History and Genealogy of Orcinus orca in British Columbia and Washington. University of British Columbia Press.
• Barre, L. et al. (2015) — Southern resident killer whale critical habitat and prey availability. NOAA Fisheries technical report.
• NOAA Fisheries — Southern Resident Killer Whale species profile and recovery plan.
• Orca Conservancy — Research and conservation resources for southern resident orcas.

Bears & hunting regulations

• Humane Society of the United States — Bear hunting regulations and mother-cub protections by state.
• Schwartz, C.C., Miller, S.D. & Haroldson, M.A. (2003) — Grizzly bear, in Wild Mammals of North America. Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Bear Conservation Fund — Research and advocacy on bear welfare and hunting policy.
• National Wildlife Federation — Black Bear species profile. Includes information on cub dependency and survival rates.

Bambi & the cultural history of animal empathy

• Salten, Felix (1923) — Bambi: A Life in the Woods. Original novel on which the 1942 Disney film is based.
• Whitley, David (2008) — The Idea of Nature in Disney Animation. Ashgate. Explores how Disney films shaped public attitudes toward wildlife.
• Lutts, Ralph H. (1992) — The trouble with Bambi: Walt Disney's Bambi and the American vision of nature. Forest & Conservation History 36(4).

Take action

• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine — Plant-based diet resources and transition guidance.
• NOAA Fisheries — Chinook salmon recovery in the Pacific Northwest. Supporting salmon recovery directly supports southern resident orcas.
• International Elephant Foundation — Anti-poaching and elephant habitat conservation.
• TRAFFIC — The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network. Resources on the global ivory trade.
• animalinthemachine.com — Show notes and episode archive.